We searched for studies in English published before July 1, 2019 on PsycINFO, PubMed, SciELO, Scopus, and Web of Science. We assessed the relationship between drug use (methamphetamines, heroin; opiates; crack, cocaine and cannabis as dependent variables) and reported tooth loss, periodontal disease, or decayed, missing, and filled teeth index as an independent variable. The data were analyzed using Stata 12.0 software.
All studies included clinical measures or participant self-reports showing the presence of oral diseases. It is worth noting that we selected the most severe oral health condition in the presence of several oral disease categories. Edentulism and tooth loss were assessed individually. Moreover, we excluded investigations on dysfunction temporomandibular, erosion, or xerostomia. As noted above all qualitative studies focusing on dental outcomes, including poor oral health status were excluded.
Dental Clinic Software 67 Crack Cocaine
Prior empirically-based investigations and case studies have explored the relationship between oral health status and specific illicit drugs; however, our review of the literature resulted in no previous meta-analysis on this topic among PWUD. As a result, the current research assessed available empirical and clinical data with regard to the correlation between illicit drugs and significant oral conditions such as dental caries and periodontal disease among PWUD. Previous studies identified dental caries as the most prevalent condition among PWUD [19, 58]. Moreover, dental caries are more prevalent and severe among people who use MA, when compared to non-drug using controls [19, 55, 59]. According to a study among people who use MA in United States, untreated dental caries and the odds of having dental carries were respectively two and four times higher among cases, compared to the controls (i.e., National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) control group) [54]). In addition, the odds of reporting decayed, missing, or filled teeth were double among people who use MA, compared to the NHANES participants [29]. Consistent with the prior research, the mean scores of tooth decay (TD), missing teeth (MT) and DMFT were higher in the patients self-reporting drug use, in comparison to people who do not use drugs [19, 55, 59].
Hazel had been to a residential treatment program to help her overcome her addiction to crack cocaine. She found the classes offered there very helpful, both in their instruction but also for the social opportunities:
Less clear, however, are the effects of methadone maintenance on cocaine abuse (Dunteman et al, 1992). In fact, clinical studies have reported that methadone decreases, has no effect, or even increases cocaine use, although differences in methadone dosage may account for the discrepant results (Borg et al, 1999; Brands et al, 2002; Chaisson et al, 1989; Condelli et al, 1991; Hartel et al, 1995; Kidorf and Stitzer, 1993; Kleber, 1994; Kosten et al, 1987; Magura et al, 1991; Maxwell and Shinderman, 1999; Strain et al, 1994). Given these mixed findings, it is surprising that few studies have investigated whether the motivational properties of cocaine are modified by methadone maintenance. Two studies in poly-drug abusing patients have reported that methadone increased responses to cocaine. Foltin et al (1995) found that patients maintained on methadone doses above 60 mg/day reported larger cocaine effects on several measures, including ratings of cocaine liking. Similarly, Preston et al (1996) found that 50 mg/day methadone maintenance enhanced cocaine-induced increases in subjective ratings of rush, good effects, liking, and desire for cocaine. Similar results have been obtained in animal studies. In rats, it has been reported that acute methadone injections (8 mg/kg) enhanced the reinforcing effects of cocaine, as established by the conditioned place preference paradigm (Bilsky et al, 1992). Finally, in non-human primates, it has been found that the combination of methadone and cocaine had greater reinforcing value than cocaine alone, as established by oral self-administration of these substances (Wang et al, 2001).
The highest maintenance dose of methadone tested in the activity study (30 mg/kg/day) was used in the self-administration experiment because it was well tolerated and it did not depress locomotor activity. More importantly, clinical studies have indicated that high methadone doses must be used in order to reduce both opiate and cocaine use (Borg et al, 1999). The doses used for self-administration were 0.05 mg/kg/inf of heroin and 0.5 mg/kg/inf of cocaine. These were selected on the basis of our findings, indicating that animals trained to self-administer both heroin and cocaine, at these doses, will display comparable levels of heroin- and cocaine-seeking behaviors when tested in extinction conditions (Leri and Stewart, 2001). For reinstatement, doses of 0.25 mg/kg (s.c.) of heroin and 20 mg/kg (i.p.) of cocaine were selected on the basis of studies showing that they can effectively reinstate heroin- and cocaine-seeking behavior in animals trained to self-administer both (Leri and Stewart, 2001).
Barbiturate tests are generally reliable, and false-positives and -negatives are rare.5 Similarly, immunoassays for cocaine are sensitive and specific. In general passive inhalation of crack cocaine does not cause a false-positive; however, it has been reported in cases of chronic exposure. 2ff7e9595c
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